Titles and abstracts of field projects completed by participants in the fall 1999 ACM Tanzania Program. These papers are not available for distribution.

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Cultivation and the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area: Practices, Problems and Effects.  Sarah Bartz, Lake Forest College.

This study focused on Maasai cultivation practices in the Endulen area of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania.  The results of 35 interviews explain the basics of how cultivation is being carried out and how it has affected the life of the Maasai.  While cultivation has improved the reliability and quantity of food, as well as the health of the Maasai, this type of land use remains in conflict with wildlife conservation goals of the NCAA.  These issues of conflict are also discussed.  This study reinforces the need for cultivation or other food sources that can support the Maasai's growing population.

Education Regarding Sexually Transmitted Diseases and STD Prevention Methods in Maasailand.  Elisabeth R. Beasley, Knox College.

Due to polygamous sexual norms, Maasai men and women are at a high risk for contracting sexually transmitted diseases.  The openness of the Maasai community, sexually speaking, and the circumcision rites of passage which sometimes involve unsanitary cutting tools are two main reasons for the prevalence of STDs.

The goal of my research was to understand, through survey methods, where STD education of the Maasai community comes from.  I interviewed 50 Maasai women over the course of four weeks.  Interview questions focused on what my interviewees knew of STDs and STD prevention methods.  Through these direct interviews and discussions with medical workers at two Ngorongoro Crater Area hospitals, I learned that these local hospitals' outreach clinics are potentially the most effective means that the hospital have of educating Maasai about STD issues.

Energy Use and Thermoregulation of Procavia johnstoni.  Jessica Berryman, Coe College.

The energy expenditure and thermoregulation of Procavia johnstoni were studied in relation to their activity budget.  It was found that of the animals able to be seen throughout the day, that most of them rested.  Relatively small peaks in feeding and other activities were observed.  Hyraxes could be seen in greater numbers in the cooler parts of the day.  It was concluded that the peak times were due to the need to thermoregulate more efficiently.  They were seen basking in groups in the morning and huddling in the evening during the peak resting times.  The activities other than resting or feeding consisted mainly of running from rock to rock and juveniles playing.

Allomother Infant Handling Among Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) of the Serengeti.  Heather Budd, Beloit College.

Infant handling by individuals other than the mother is a fascinating phenomenon observed among both Old and New World Monkeys.  Infant handling has often times been considered a homogeneous phenomenon utilizing various single-explanation frameworks to account for the function and evolution of infant handling by reference to an independent hypothesis.  This study focused on instances of black infant handling among Olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis) in the Serengeti.  Individuals from all age and sex classes were observed to participate in infant handling, all with different incentives.  Various accounts of both agonistic and affiliative interactions between mothers, infants and allomothers resulted differently in response to the variations in the surrounding social environment.  The wide variations of incentives and results in the observed instances of infant handling demand an expanded explanatory framework; infant handling was found to be a heterogeneous phenomenon. Key words: Olive baboons (papio cynocephalus anubis), infant handling, heterogeneous.

Stratigraphy and Heavy Mineral Analysis in the Upper Laetolil Beds; Laetoli, Tanzania.  Avery Cook, Macalester College.

The Laetoli Area is an archeological research site in Northern Tanzania.  The Upper Laetolil Beds are famous for their abundance of Plio/Pleistocene mammalian and hominid fossils.  These beds are a sequence of air-fall and water-worked tuffs 45-60m thick.  The tuff matrix is of a nepheline-phonolite or melilite-carbonitite composition.  This study has found that phenocrysts comprise between 5 and 30 percent of the air-fall tuffs and 70 percent or more of the water worked tuffs and are dominantly magnetite or illmenite, biotite, and hornblende with smaller amounts of perovskite, zircon, feldspars, and volcanic glass.  The heavy mineral composition of each unit has been found to vary widely and heavy mineral analysis has not yet provided a method of reliable correlation between units.

A Survey of the Gastrointestinal Parasites of Plains Zebra (Equus burchelli) in the Serengeti National Park.  Lindsay Danner, Ripon College and Marylouise Wilkerson, The University of Chicago.

This study focuses on parasitic, gastrointestinal infestation of the Plains Zebra (Equus brucelli) in Serengeti National Park.  From 11 October 1999 to 6 November 1999, fresh fecal samples were collected opportunistically from zebras and analyzed for cestode and nematode eggs using a flotation technique.  For each sample, the number of eggs per gram of feces (epg) was calculated.  The epg of each sample was counted in order to contribute to the base-line data being collected on healthy zebra population, it is important to know the average epg of a healthy zebra.  Then comparisons can be done between egg counts of sick and healthy zebras to determine the cause of illness.  Baseline data on the epg of a zebra was determined from this study.  Furthermore, all zebras in our sample population tested positive for worm eggs.  Demographic and seasonal trends in egg counts were analyzed as well.

Density and Distribution of Opuntia spp. in Serengeti National Park.  Katharine Driver, Knox College.

Prickly pear cactus (Opuntia spp.) Is an invasive plant from South America that has established itself in the Serengeti National Park.  Due to its abundance of photosynthetic tissue, shallow root structure, and ability to perform CAM photosynthesis, it out competes many other indigenous species.  In order to evaluate the threat that Opuntia posed to the Serengeti, a rough census was taken and hypotheses were formed as to the species dispersal methods and competitive ability.  Opuntia was found at six places within the park; Ikoma gate, Naabi gate, the Visitors' Center, Seronera Lodge, Lobo Lodge, and the balloon house (old Seronera Lodge).  Its density ranged from 1 to 55 individuals per km2 and three morphological species were found, but not identified.  From observations made while in the field it is suspected that Opuntia is dispersed intentionally by human activity and only shows a medium to low competitive ability in the environment.

Diversity and Resource-Linked Spatial Distribution of the Insects of Serengeti National Park, Tanzania.  Elaine J. Dunham, Lawrence University.

Between October 15 and November 5, 1999, I sampled the insect populations of Serengeti Naitonal Park, Tanzania.  The collection sites included a burnt grassland (Site 1), a long-grass prairie (Site 2), and a wooded grassland (Site 3).  I analyzed population data gleaned from three methods of specimen collection.  I identified all specimens to order and examined the resultant data for patterns an differences in diversity and abundance.  I compared data between sites and between the samples  taken before and after 27 October, when several inches of rain started the new growing season.  The data indicate that Site 3 has the largest and most diverse insect population, as expected for the site with the most complex habitat structure.  Site 1 has the smallest and least diverse population.  The abundance of insects increased after the arrival of the rains, though no trend in changing diversity levels over time could be discovered.  The baseline study can serve as initial (though incomplete) picture of what is "normal" for the Serengeti plains and as the first step in informed conservation.

Activity and Spatial Patterns of Consorting Olive Baboons (Papio anubis).  Cody Haight, Colorado College.

During the estrus period of female Olive baboons (Papio anubis) a male often consorts the estrus female for a period of up to 15 days.  Presumably, there are selective reason for this behavior.  In order to weigh the benefits of consort behavior, it must first be determined what the costs are.  This study examines the activity and spatial patterns consorting and individual baboons in Serengeti National Park.  The results indicate that there are many energetic costs that accompany consort behavior, mostly in the form of increased energy output, especially for the male.  There are other costs that have to do with deviation from preferred spatial patterns.  These changes in spatial patterns, "social costs", are heavier for the female than for the male.  It is apparent that both members of the consort pair are willing to suffer many costs for the sake of being in a consort pair.

Small Mammals at Laetoli and their Paleoenvironmental Implications.  Heather Hansen, Beloit College.

Small animals, particularly small mammals fill a wide variety of niches and their abundance and diversity says a great deal about the ecosystem and environment.  In the context of a paleontological site, the presence and abundance of specific taxa provides insight into the paleoenvironment.  This paper examines the findings of a general survey focusing on small mammals that was conducted at Laetoli.  Laetoli is a paleontological site in northern Tanzania, which plays an important role in the study of hominid evolution.  Although sample size was small due to limitations in time and resources, a wide variety of specimens were found at both the genus and family level.  The small sample size probably biases the varying abundance of these different groups and this must be taken into consideration.  However, the level of diversity within the sample says a lot about the environment at Laetoli during Pliocene.  All taxa present in my sample indicate either a savanna or wooded grassland environment.

Methods of Counting Birds.  Nathan Haynes, Cornell College.

East Africa is rich in avian fauna; the Serengeti National Park alone is thought to have approximately 530 species of birds.  Most information on species diversity available today covers the broad range of East Africa, with Kenya being the most documented area.  Species diversity of avian fauna is an indicator of biodiversity; if populations are well monitored this information can be used as an indicator of environmental change.

There are various methods used to census bird populations.  Pomeroy and Dranzoa did a study comparing Transect Counts and Timed Species Counts.  For this project in the Serengeti, I used their study as a model.  I chose two, 1 km² areas in the Seronera region as my study sites.  One area was grassland and the other a wooded-grassland.  The purpose of the study was to compare the abundance numbers produced by the different methods in the different habitats.  The methods produced similar results but each showed bias toward particular habitats and bird types.

Hominid Pedestal Restoration Project.  Chris Lopez, Knox College.

This project's main interest is the quality and longevity of the Laetoli hominid pedestals.  Many of these pedestals were restored by Ryan Schaub of Beloit College and Felix Ndunguru of the Department of Antiquities in the 1998 ACM Tanzania field session.  More than half of those pedestals were damaged or destroyed due to anthropogenic occurrences.  These anthropogenic occurrences are caused by Maasai herd-boys.  The Maasai are causing this damage by using common tools such as stones, and spears to chip, crack and completely destroy the pedestals.  It has been mentioned that the Maasai are destroying these pedestals in search of raw materials that are not readily available to them.  My initial plan of locating the pedestals in the Laetoli area was to use the hominid pedestal map, which was created by Mary Leakey.  This map gives a rough idea in the general location of the pedestals in each locality.  There was a mis-communication and the map never made it to my camp in Endulen.  With this set-back I decided, with the help of Mr. Kilindo, to first relocated the pedestals that were repaired in last year's project and then continue to other localities in search of other pedestals.  The repair of these pedestals was done using differing methods such as clearing existing trenches, and reinforcing retaining walls, and total reconstruction in order to repair and improve pedestal quality.  Key words: Hominid, Laetoli, Restoration.

The Environment Water Health and Concerns of the Maasai people in the Endulen village of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area.  Olivia Roanhorse, Colorado College.

I conducted a survey of the environmental health of the Maasai water resources within the region of Endulen, Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania.  The overall health of the Maasai in the surrounding sub-villages of Endulen is dependent on their shifting lifestyle from nomadic pastoralists to agricultural pastoralists.  The result is an increase in population and permanent settlements, people with poor natural water filtering sources and the increasing fecal contamination due to animals or infected people defecating or washing in the water source.  Seasonal dependence, with a higher incidence of infection in the wet season, also highly influences their water health.  The Maasai people's health depends on education about water related diseases, utilization of environmental resources (e.g. agriculture) and water development. 

Maasai Women's Reproductive Health and Sexual Education.  Sheila Vijay Sathe, Carleton College. 

This study focuses on the reproductive health of Maasai women in the Endulen area of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania.  Seventy interviews were conducted with women from 10 different villages between 11 October and 6 November 1999.  Questions concerning use of the Endulen hospital, number of pregnancies, problems with pregnancies, and knowledge of birth control methods were asked.  This research suggests that Maasai women use the Endulen hospital only for pre-natal clinics or when there are serious problems with their pregnancies.  Most women have heard of birth control and many are interested in using contraceptives, however education concerning contraceptives and availability of pills, injections and condoms is not widespread.  The addition of a family planning clinic to the hospital outreach clinics may be one way to provide Maasai women with much needed resources and education.

Pliocene Mammalian Fossil Collection and Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction at Laetoli, Tanzania.  Courtenay Shin, University of Chicago and Jennie Simmons, Colorado College.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence of large mammal fauna at Laetoli, Tanzania.  Laetoli is an East African site with a long history of significant fossilized faunal discoveries, particularly in terms of hominid material.  Any data collected in this research practicum will add to the standing body of knowledge regarding the paleoenvironment of hominid ancestors.  General survey, mapping, and careful excavation were employed at two Laetoli localities.  Fossil remains of three large mammals and one potential hominid were recovered.  At Locality 3 a fragmentary radius of a giraffe was collected in addition to possible hominid craniodental material.  Collected from Locality 3 were a partial distal elephant femur and associated fragmentary bone scatter, as well as two vertebrae and multiple craniodental fragments of a rhinoceros.  All material dates to the Pliocene period.  Although wetter, the paleoenvironment during this period resembled present conditions and may be characterized by wooded grasslands.  In addition, mammalian faunal specimens found here resemble modern species inhabiting similar environments. 

Being Maasai Outside of Land, Cattle and Time.  Steve Sortijas, University of Chicago.

Western representations on the Maasai posit the land and cattle as essential aspects of Maasai identity. These writers employ the trope of cultural extinction as the ultimate result of historical and current encroachments on land and the decline of a subsistence pastoral lifestyle. My essay attempts to focus on how the Maasai envision their identities as a result of migrations to cities, the increasing reliance on a cash-based economy and the availability of competing economic opportunities.

Play and Grooming as Educational Tools in Juvenile Olive Baboons (Papio Anubis).  Michael Suarez, Beloit College.

I described several aspects of play and grooming in juvenile Savanna Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania to determine development differences in males and females.  I compared initiation and reception frequencies of playing and grooming bouts as well as the total time each sex spent in each of the two activities.  Males initiated and received more play bouts and also spent more total time playing than did females while females initiated more grooming bouts and spend more total time grooming than did males.  I found that males did have a slightly larger grooming reception frequency than did females, though this may be attributed to a small sample size.  This research correlates with the known adult behavior patterns found matriarchal societys and therefore suggests that play and grooming are used as educational tools in the development of the social skills needed upon reaching maturity.

Death and Dismemberment in the Serengeti: A Taphonomic Examination of Depredation and Differential Scavenging of East African Mammalian Carcasses.  Amelia A. Wolf, Colorado College.

Taphonomy is the study of the differences between the living and the fossil appearance of skeletons, skeletal elements, and skeletal tissues.  Most of the information we have to interpret taphonomic precesses comes from our knowledge of current ecological processes.  I investigated some of these current ecological processes in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, focusing on depredation and differential scavenging and the factors that affect these behaviors.  This was accomplished by mapping modern bone scatters, comparing depredation deaths to natural deaths, observing specific predator and scavenger damage to carcasses and bones, and experimentally placing carcasses in different habitats.  Though sample size was small, some general trends were revealed.  Limbs seem to be more likely to be dragged away from the carcass than other skeletal parts, and bones of animals that died from chronic conditions seem to be less likely to be scavenged than those of animals that died from depredation or illnesses of short duration.  Many questions open for further research were raised by this study.

Updated 5/25/07