Titles and abstracts of field projects completed by participants in the fall 2001 ACM Tanzania Program. These papers are not available for distribution.

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Hyrax (Heterohyrax brucei and Provavia johnstoni) Ratios on Developed and Undeveloped Kopjes in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Christie Balch, Lawrence University.

In this study, the difference in the ratio between two species of hyrax (Heterohyrax brucei and Procavia johnstoni was compared between developed kopjes (with buildings) and undeveloped kopjes (without buildings) in the Serengeti National Park.  Three developed kopjes and three undeveloped kopjes were studied, each for three consecutive days and the population of each species was noted daily.  A chi-squared test revealed that there is a statistically significant difference (P<0.01) in species ratio between developed and undeveloped kopjes in the SNP.  Undeveloped kopjes are almost completely dominated by H. brucei, whereas developed kopjes, which are still dominated by H. brucei, have between 20-60% P.  johnstoni.  The type of vegetation dominant at each kopje studied may explain these results.  Developed kopjes, especially the three used in this study, tend to have a higher proportion of grass and lower proportion of bushes and shrubs than undeveloped kopjes.  Changes in kopje vegetation are effected by the development of a kopje, so it is concluded that the changes in vegetation composition due to the development of kopjes is what determines which species will live there, and, if the population is sympatric, which species the ratio will favor.

The relationship Between Thorn Density and Browsing of Acacia tortilis Trees in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Nicholas Beecher, University of Chicago.
 

The goal of this study was to determine whether a relationship exists between the thorn density of Acacia tortilis trees and the frequency of browsing that occurs in the area they appear at within Serengeti National Park.  Five sites were selected that are dominated by Acacia tortilis and that experience different frequencies of browsing.  Using the results of Young’s 1997 study, which state that increased thorn length is a result of increased browsing, thorn length was measured to determine the differences of browsing among the study sites.  To calculate density the number of both straight and curved thorns were counted over a measured branch length.  The average density of each site was then compared to the browsing frequency of the site to see if a relationship exists between the two variables.  The results show that thorn density is affected by browsing frequency.  However, the two types of thorn structures have inverse relationships to browsing frequency.  Straight thorn density decreases as browsing increases, whereas curved thorn density increases.  This relationship is explained based on growth and energy use of the tree.  Browsing frequency determines the initial density of thorns.  From this relationship it is concluded that in order to conserve energy the tree will grow more shorter curved thorns and less longer straight thorns.  By growing the shorter thorns the tree has more energy to use for other activities, such as, overall growth and photosynthesis.

The Influence of Serengeti National Park in Robanda Village: A Study of Opinions and Information. Jotham Burnett, University of Chicago.
 

This study examines the opinions and information of Robanda village with respect to Serengeti National Park.  Previous work shows that protected areas in Tanzania have evicted, economically disadvantaged, and politically disregarded surrounding communities, and continue to do so.  As a result, relationships between protected areas and their surrounding communities have been characterized by hostility.  In order to study the influence of Serengeti National Park in Robanda, this study gathered park documents, interviewed conservation officials, and interviewed the people of the village.  The results of this study show that although Serengeti National Park has marginalized Robanda in the past, Robandans collectively support the park today.  This study offers explanations for this deviation from the existing literature about the community integration as well as problems that may arise from Robandans’ opinions and information about Serengeti National Park.  Finally, this study analyzes the future goals of Robanda concerning their relationship with Serengeti National Park and conservation as a whole.

A Paleotaphonomic Analysis of the Upper Laetolil Beds Exposed at Localities 3,5,6 and 7. Ellen Currano, University of Chicago and  Nandini Singh, Knox College.
 

The primary objective of this study was to compare fossil bones from the Upper Laetolil Beds, which varied in shape, size, taxon and body part.  The study was intended to provide insight into which bone size, bone shape, taxon and body part had the fewest taphonomic features.  Taphonomic analysis of the bones in the sample provided information about how different bones fossilize.  This was one of the only studies conducted at Laetoli that focused solely on taphonomy. Excavations were conducted at localities 3,5,6 and 7.  The identifiable bones of the sample size were a lumbar vertebra, 3 giraffidae teeth, 12 ribs from a large antelope, an unidentifiable tibia midshaft, and a bovidae femur.  Taphonomic features observed included weathering and surface modifications such as trampling, tooth pits, tooth scores, compaction, desquamation, craking, flaking, and root etching.  However, the sample size of the study was too small to obtain any definite conclusions. 

The Role of Kopjes in the Regional Settlement Patterns of the Serengeti Plain. Justin Dodd, Beloit College.
 

Surface surveys conducted throughout the Serengeti National Park and excavations at Ichumbe  Rock in the central Serengeti produced a wealth of cultural debris.  Surface surveys were conducted at seventeen different localities with a focus on Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Late Stone Age (LSA) technologies.  Artifact distribution in the Serengeti does indicate selective settling by prehistoric peoples from the MSA through historic times. Kopjes were selectively settled, however kopjes were not the only areas of the Serengeti Plain that saw increased human activity.  Three major factors seem to play a role in the settlement of prehistoric populations: the ability to access water, protection from elements and other forces, and the accessibility of game.  Excavation of four one by one-meter units at Ichumbe rock indicated that there is little difference in the way the land was used from the Middle Stone Age through historic times.  Artifact concentrations are vertically diffuse and, on a large scale at least, horizontally diffuse.  However, concentrations of artifacts are certainly more horizontally concentrated around specific geographic features like water sources and sources of shelter.

A study of the flocking behaviour and interspecific association of Starlings, Lamprotornis hildebrandti and Lamprotornis superbus, in the Serengeti.  Emily A Giles, University of Chicago.
 

Lamprotornis hildebrandti and Lamprotornis superbus are sympatric species occupying habitats in Serengeti National Park.  The two species are often seen flocking and foraging together in the park.  This study examines the possible benefits of mixed flocking of L. hildebrandti  and L. superbus.  Previous research suggests that individuals in large mixed flocks gain increased protection from predation, decreased time spent vigilant by each individual, or decreased competition (Matthysen, 1983).  Observational data was collected at kopjes and campsites inside the park.  Data was collected on feeding and vigilant behavior, flocking behavior, and aggression as a measure of competition, and alarm call recognition.  The results show an insignificant correlation between vigilance and flock size (r² =-0.00856).  There is a significant difference in the amount of intraspecific and interspecific aggression between the species (t_stat=3.058, P<0.05).  The data showed that this heterospecific group behaves similarly to a monospecific flock, and finally, hildebrandts’ responded just as often as superbs to the superb alarm call (x²_stat=0.67, P>0.05).  The results of the study support the hypothesis that this mixed flock retains benefits conferred by monopsecific flocks and gains the benefit of decreased competition.

The effect of tour vehicle traffic on the drinking behavior of zebra at Serengeti waterholes. Rebecca Kordas, University of Chicago.
 

As nature reserves and national parks become increasingly popular, the number of visitors increases, inducing more interaction with wildlife.  It is important to realize the effect that these interactions have on the local wildlife community in order to preserve the natural habitat.  The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between tourist activities and the animal behavior.  As a model of this interaction, the time an animal spends drinking in the presence of vehicles can be observed.  Thirteen waterholes were surveyed, each varying in the level of traffic and length of time that cars spent at the waterhole.  These waterholes were observed over twenty-eight days, with one to six days spent at each site.  Information was collected on the vehicles and zebras at the waterhole, and analyzed by a statistical correlation test and significance test.  The results of this study indicate that there is a significant (P<0.05) relationship between drinking time and the length of time that cars stay at the waterhole (r²=0.66).

Recognizing Diversity in Maasai Traditional Medicine: A study of the treatments for abdominal problems with a focus on the origin and development of their variability. Miriam Cecilia Lara-Meloy, Lawrence University.
 

Indigenous knowledge is something that we should respect, document, and help preserve.  The objective of this field research is to gain a better understanding of how traditional societies have acquired their knowledge of medicinal properties of plants, focusing on the adaptations of such knowledge to an ever-changing environment. The Maasai people offer an extraordinary example since they are semi-nomadic and nomadic and the natural resources that they might be familiar with are not always readily available.  Climatic changes and changes in their authorized living space affect the availability of resources.  Slave trade, colonialism, “villagization” following Tanzania’s independence, and “Westernization” affect Maasai’s understanding of health and diseases.  Furthermore, differences of knowledge between sectors of the community (traditional healers vs. communal knowledge; women’s knowledge vs. men’s) produce even more diversity. With all these changes occurring around them, are they maintaining the exact recipe for treatments that their ancestors knew?  Or, are they always trying and testing new plants for medicinal purposes?  This research indicates that Maasai traditional medicine is always adapting and growing mainly by trial and error.  We can see traditional medicine not as a constant knowledge but as a type of knowledge that is open to the influences around it.

A comparison of tsetse fly (Glossina spp.) concentration in various habitats two months after the implementation of a tsetse suppression program in the Serengeti National Park (SNP), Tanzania. Aleia McCord, Grinnell College.
 

The increasing incidence of the tsetse-transmitted Human Trypansosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness) in the Serengeti region necessitated the implementation of a tsetse (Glossina spp.) population suppression program in the Serengeti National Park (SNP), Tanzania.  This study compared the concentration of tsetse flies in 42 locations in the SNP using mobile targets two months after the inception of the suppression program.  Although the available data on the tsetse population prior to the suppression program cannot be statistically compared to the data presented here, it appears that the suppression program has successfully reduced the tsetse fly population in the SNP.  There was a significantly higher concentration of tsetse flies in woodland, woodland kopje, riverine woodland, and transition areas than in grassland habitats.  The methods of data collection discussed here provide a basis for continued monitoring of the tsetse fly population in the SNP.

An Adaptive Significance of Gregariousness: Equus burchellii and Drinking Satiation in Groups of 220-1000 Individuals. Alison Mikulyuk, Grinnell College.
 

Total drinking time of herds of Equus burchellii was measured at nine Serengeti watering sites over 14 days.  Drinking time per individual per herd was compared to herd size, and the data were found to fit a logistic curve.  No correlation was found between drinking time and watering site, date, or degree of vegetation cover.  The data indicate drinking time increases as herd size increases until group size approaches 220 individuals, where the increase levels off.  This trend suggests the station level of zebras in reached when drinking in groups of 220 and larger, whereas zebras in small groups obtain water in a quantity below their satiation level. 

Intestinal Helminthiasis Prevalence in School Age Children in Ngorongoro Division. Meghan Milbrath, St. Olaf College.
 

A baseline helminthes prevalence study was carried out in October and November 2001 in Ngorongoro division.  The aim of the study was to determine the distribution of intestinal helminthiasis in school age children in this area. Two villages were chosen as study sites, Endulen and Kaitakiteng’.  Four hundred children were sampled, 200 from each site.  The samples were numbered, and the approximate age and sex of each child was recorded.  The stool samples were examined by direct saline method. Date analyses was done using excel to determine the overall incidence as well as relationships between species, and sex and age of child.  Results show that helminthiasis is a health problem in this area.  The overall prevalence of helminth infection was 47.0% in the area.  Ascaris lumbricoides was found in the highest incidence, comprising 89.2% of the infections. Taenia and Trichuris trichuria were also found, but in very small numbers.  There were only six cases of mixed infections. The results of this study will be used to develop long and short term treatment plans for helminthiasis in the area.  It will also be used to assist in determining the helminth distribution in Tanzania.

An assessment of the community similarity and biological diversity of herbaceous vegetation between kopjes and surrounding grassland in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Monica Poelchau, Grinnell College.
 

This study investigates whether grassland kopjes in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, harbor distinct herbaceous vegetation in terms of species composition and biological diversity.  In particular, it quantifies the community similarity and biological diversity of kopjes in comparison to their grassland surroundings.  Kopjes are granitic-gneissic boulders rising abruptly from the surrounding grassland.  It was found that the species composition of herbaceous plants on kopjes was dissimilar to that in the grassland.  Also, biological diversity was significantly higher in two kopjes (P<0.01) and all kopjes combined (P<0.1).  The results of the study show that the herbaceous vegetation of grassland kopjes is distinct from its surroundings, suggesting that kopjes may serve as models to test island ecological theories.

Effects of Intraspecific Competition on Spatial Patterning of Termite (Macrotermes Bellicosus) Mounds in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Portia McClure Richardson, Knox College.
 

Competition for resources among members of the same species is a vital factor that regulates the population dynamics of that species.  The objective of this study was to determine the presence or absence of intraspecific competition among colonies of the termite Macrotermes bellicosus, by examining the spatial patterning of all mounds within each colony.  As the density of mounds within a colony rises, intraspecific competition pressure for food resources causes some mounds to eventually be deserted, thus changing the spatial pattern of the mounds within the colony over time.  Six colonies of M. bellicosus were mapped using GPS coordinates and the distance between each mound to all other mounds within a colony was analyzed using the nearest neighbor analysis.  There was special focus comparing woodland and grassland colonies, due to the variations in food resources between them, and therefore three colonies were located in each habitat.  All colonies showed a dispersed spatial pattern, which indicates the presence of intraspecific competition.  However, there was a difference in average density between woodland and grassland colonies, which may be the result of different food resources in each habitat, or competition from grazer in grassland colonies.

Succession After a Disturbance:  Grasshopper diversity and composition in temporally differentiated burn sites in Serengeti National Park. Lindsey Roland, Knox College.
 

Grasshoppers, of the order Orthoptera, are abundant in wooded grasslands within the Serengeti National Park making them useful to study succession after a disturbance.  TANAPA burns certain areas in the park on a three-year rotation.  This study measures the change in diversity and species composition associated with succession after a fire.  At sites different stages of succession, measured in months since the last burn, grasshoppers were collected using pitfall traps, sweep nets and random collections.  The Shannon-Weaver index was used to measure the diversity of each successional stage.  The data shows no trend in species diversity but there was a marked change in species composition.  In conclusion, grasshoppers in wooded grasslands of the Serengeti National Park do not have a successional pattern which is indicated by diversity but rather in species composition.  Further research should be done on the grasshopper populations of Serengeti National Park and their responses to environmental fluctuations.

Maasai Opinions of Tourists in Ngorongoro Conservation Area. Jennifer Schneider, Lawrence University.
 

Ngorongoro conservation Area is one of Tanzania’s most popular tourist sites because of the animals and also because of the opportunity to interact with the local Maasai.  Ethnic tourism is becoming a significant part of the tourist industry, and many tourists now visit cultural bomas to see how the Maasai live.  Because of the increase in contact between tourists and Maasai, it is important to study the effects the cultures have on each other.  This study looks at the opinions the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area have of tourists.

Between October 8 and November 5, 2001, fifty-four interviews were conducted in the Endulen area and at three cultural bomas in Ngorongoro Conservation Area.  Questions were asked to help identify the perceptions the Maasai have of tourists, and the possible causes for these views.  Sites were chosen to collect data from informants who have had a lot of contact with tourists and from informants who have had little contact.

The Maasai have positive opinions of tourists because of the friendly attitudes the tourists project when they visit Ngorongoro Conservation Area, and because of their economic contributions to the area.  When they visit, tourists show signs of respect and friendship.  They also help the Maasai economically by paying entrance fees at the Crater and cultural bomas, and donate money for community development projects.  These actions have further contributed to the positive opinions the Maasai have of tourists.  Because my informants may not have revealed all of their opinions, it is difficult to determine if there are also negative feelings towards tourists.  If there are, these negative impressions may be overshadowed by the economic benefits tourists bring.  If there are not, the overwhelmingly positive opinions may be caused by the limited amount of contact the Maasai have with tourists.  Further study needs to be done to ascertain the causes of these opinions and whether tourists are also having a negative affect on the Maasai.

The Effect of Fire on Niche Differentiation Among Ants (Genus Crematogaster and Tetraponera) on Acacia Drepanolobium in Serengeti National Park. Sheyang Seneviratne, Carleton College.
 

The purpose of this study is to better understand the patterns of niche differentiation between four species of ants on Acacia drepanolobium, specifically niche differentiation after fire.  Seven different sites were selected based on time of burn.  Information was collected at each site on species present and aggregation patterns, and the effect the fire had on tree health.  Data for these were analyzed by Chi square, Cochran’s Q, and Kruskal Wallis tests.  There was no significance in which type of species ant inhabited an area.  However, the aggregation patterns, whether only one species or more than one species inhabited a single tree at the same time varied significantly between the sites (P<0.000).  In addition, fire was significantly (P<0.000) shown to have a varied effect between sites burned at different times (this was measured through estimated values of leaf density).  The results of this study introduce new information to the study of acacia-ant relationship.  Previous research suggests more than one species is never found on a single tree at a time.  Each species is competive in defending their niche.  However, this study proposes there are varying degrees to which the ants maintain and protect their niche.  With more time after a burn, ants are less competitive and more than one species can be found at the same time on a single tree.

The Prevalence of Human Intestinal Parasites Among School-Age Children in Ngorongoro Division. Alison L. Smith, St Olaf College.
 

In the rural villages of Ngorongoro Division in the Ngorongoro conservation Area (NCA) of northern Tanzania, there was believed to be a high parasitic worm (helminth) infection rate.  This is because a large portion of patients admitted to Endulen Hospital, the largest primary health care facility in the NCA, are suffering from illness due to this type of infection.  No previous studies had been conducted, however, to verify that there was a problem.

In this study, stool specimens from 396 school-age children were examined to determine the prevalence of helminth infections in the villages of Kaitikateng’ and Endulen, located in Ngorongoro Division.  The study was conducted in collaboration with Endulen Hospital.

Stool samples were examined for helminth eggs by direct saline preparation techniques.  The results indicate that intestinal parasites do present a public health problem in Ngorongoro Division, with a 47.8% overall infection rate in Kaitikateng’ and a 46.2% overall infection rate in Endulen.  The most prevalent source of infection was from Ascaris lumbricoides (44.4% in Kaitikateng’ and 39.5% in the case of Trichuris trichura in the village of Endulen.  Two percent in Kaitikateng’ and 1.0% in Endulen were multiple infections.  Using a statistical analysis test, it was determined that there was a significant difference in the number of males and females infected in Endulen.  There were no significant differences between the overall infection rates between the two villages, nor between age groups in either village, nor between males and females in Kaitikateng’.

As a result of this study, Endulen Hospital will administer mass treatment for children in the village of Endulen, and give treatment to all those infected in Kaitikateng’.  The results of this study will also be used by Tanzanian health officials to determine if or what measures of treatment and prevention should be taken in controlling or working toward the eradication of the problem of intestinal helminth infections in rural areas.

The Competitive Ability of Opuntia spp. And mechanisms of Re-establishment in the Serengeti National Park. Peter M. Stevens, Lawrence University.
 

The cacti genus Opuntia is well documented and heavily studied as a native species in the Americas and as an invasive species in Australia.  However, minimal research has been conducted on Opuntia in the Serengeti National Park.  The objectives of this practicum were to assess the competitive ability of Opuntia relative to other, native plants and determine the mechanisms of re-establishment for Opuntia at sites where removal efforts had taken place. 

Data was collected from seven sites selected based on presence of Opuntia and occurrence of removal efforts.  A plotless method was utilized and transects were established in the four cardinal and four intermediate directions.  Growth environment and mechanism of re-establishment were recorded for each Opuntia observed.  This data was later compiled and analyzed using Microsoft Excel and Confidence Limit Tests were conducted to ensure statistical significance.

Opuntia was found to possess medium to low competitive ability, a finding that is supported by the body of previous work.  This suggests that Opuntia may not pose as large or imminent of a threat to the Serengeti National Park ecosystem as previously believed and raises a number of compelling questions on Opuntia’s associations and role, if any, in the Serengeti ecosystem.  Also, Opuntia at removal sites were found to be re-establishing through refuse plant material.  This suggests that Park Authorities could improve the effectiveness and efficiency of removal efforts by simply ensuring that careful and thorough collection and disposal procedures are followed.  In addition, it suggests that other, more cost and labor effective control measures, specifically biological controls, should be explored and researched for possible future implementation.

Origin of the Kilimafedha Greenstone Belt, Northern Tanzania. Bethany M. Weisberger, Beloit College.
 

Kilimafedha Greenstone Belt in northern Tanzania is one of the Lake Victoria Greenstone Belts.  These Precambrian lavas and sediments of the Kilimafedha sequence are exposed in the high hills and stream beds of north-central Serengeti National Park.  The area was last surveyed in 1965, and since limited investigation has been conducted, except concerning the economic value of the Kilimafedha gold mine.  During a period of four weeks, outcrops were visited and samples were taken.  Kilimafedha is dominated by volcanic and volcaniclastic units making up 90% of the stratigraphy.  The high percent of intermediate commpostition volcanics indicates the Kilimfedha Greenstone Belt formed in an island arc setting.  However, small outcrops of quartzite are seen, therefore, the island arc was transforming to a continental margin, where land-derived sediments could originate

Transforming Democracy: A Study of Residual Socialist Attitudes and Their Effect on Voting Habits of the Ngorongoro Maasai. Adam J. Weiss, Ripon College.
 

As the transition towards a multiparty political system in Tanzania ensues, a reflection on the past is essential to understanding the present.  This study provides an assessment of the effects of 23 years of a one-party, authoritative rule on the political participation of the Ngorongoro Maasai through an examination of who votes and why within the Ngorongoro Maasai.  The information intrinsic to this study was collected though interviews with 101 Ngorongoro Maasai residents as well as interviews with Members of Parliament, Village Councilors, and Village Chairpersons.  The results indicate that there are residual socialists attitudes imbedded in Massai political perspectives.  The single party mindset is further accentuated through the Maasai political structure.  Nearly 90% of Maasai prefer the Chama ch Mapinduzi (CCM) one-party system because the one-party system is associated with peace and stability.  Furthermore, the Maasai do not have an alternative option because CCM controls the local offices to ensure that it is the only political party on the ballot (particularly in the Endulen Ward).  The corruption that takes place between state and local politicians further exacerbates the situation.  Although the effects are positive, in terms voting percentages, CCM is the only party to receive votes.  The success of Tanzania’s multiparty democracy rests in the hands of the people.  However, the effects of socialism and the single party mindset will continue to suppress the true potential unless education about multiparty politics receives more attention.

From Boma to Big City: Transformation in the Social Structure of the Ngorongoro Maasai. Emily Craig Zabor, Grinnell College.
 

The Ngorongoro Maasai reside within the boundaries of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania.  For the last 300 years, the Maasai have been nomadic pastoralists, moving their cattle from wet to dry season pastures without establishing permanent settlements.  However, their movement has been limited by the development of Serengeti National Park and boundaries of the NCA, threatening their traditional lifestyle.  Now, the Maasai have been forced to supplement pastoralism with cultivation in order to survive and they live in permanent homes.  In addition, Maasai are now found in cities, whereas ten years ago it was rare to see a traditional Maasai off their lands.  This study addresses the questions of a) what factors are causing the Maasai to go to cities and b) how the community is affected by people going to cities.  This study was conducted in the area surrounding Endulen village within the NCA from October 8, 2001 through November 5, 2001.  With the service of a translator, interviews were conducted with 107 participants of varying ages, genders, education levels, and levels of contact with cities.  This study found that Maasai are going to cities to get jobs in response to severe poverty and lack of cattle.  The community is being affected in many ways, including a gap in the workforce, an increase in communicable diseases, and the affects of inter-tribal marriages.  In addition, the Maasai are currently experiencing a shift in social roles due to many morani being in cities. 

Updated 5/25/07