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Tanzania: |
ACM Tanzania Program Field Projects |
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Fall 2002 Titles and abstracts of field projects completed by participants in the fall 2002 ACM Tanzania Program. These papers are not available for distribution. Go
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East
to West Clinal Gradients of Morph Frequencies in the Polymorphic
East African Butterfly Danaus chrysippus (L.): Refining the
East African Hybrid Zone to the Lake Victoria Region The butterfly Danaus chrysippus is polymorphic throughout its range and is the most common butterfly in Africa. East Africa (Uganda, Rwanda, Kenya, and Tanzania) is unique in that it harbors the greatest diversity of polymorphism within the range. The polymorphism is dynamic and implies the existence of a hybrid zone in East Africa. The polymorphism is proposed to have evolved through allopatric subspeciation resulting from habitat fragmentation and regeneration during the Pleistocene ice ages and frequent world climate changes. Smith proposes that the entirety of East Africa is the hybridization zone. There exist five modern monomorphic areas throughout Africa thought to be remnants of palaeo-refugia, which facilitated allopatric subspeciation. Smith and colleagues have measured morph frequencies through population sampling within the supposed hybrid zone in several areas but no change in location during collection occurred. The monitoring of the morph frequencies at various points between Dar es Salaam and the Serengeti National Park reported in this investigation provides data that could further refine the borders of the hybrid zone. In addition, the results give support and insight into the processes allopatric subspeciation and gusto to the theory of evolution in a modern context. A
Conservation-Oriented Analysis and Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction
of Footprint Tuff at Laetoli, Tanzania This goal of this project was to document three exposures of the Footprint Tuff at Laetoli and to assess their conservation needs. In the course of identifying, documenting, mapping and measuring animal tracks at three sites, I found that Acacia tree roots, water erosion, and trampling by livestock are the three major sources of disturbance to Footprint Tuff exposures. All three sites merit further study and their presence should be brought to the attention of conservators in the Department of Antiquities. Conservators could build water diversion structures and monitor tree growth in areas where footprint tuff is exposed, and also implement conservation education/awareness programs led by and for the Maasai who live in the area. I also used the animal print identifications I made to perform a paleoenvironmental reconstruction of Laetoli's Pliocene environment using habitat analogy. The diversity of animal prints at the sites implies that the Pliocene paleoenvironment at Laetoli consisted of a mosaic of grassland and galleries of woodland.
The Impact of Tourism Vehicles on the Introduction
of Alien and Invasive Plant Species within the Serengeti Ecosystem
This study developed a model for understanding weeds in the Serengeti ecosystem. The model gives insights into how roads influence the presence of disturbance plant species in the environment. The model also criticizes the current weed removal program in the park and relates this program to the behavior of the plants. The research consisted of collecting data on roadside species composition through using transects and quadrat sampling procedures. Observational data was also collected through participation in the current weed removal program in the park and detailed mapping of cause and effect relationships between man and weeds. The results from this research indicate a direct correlation between road development and the existence of weeds. A higher abundance of weeds occurred closer to the roads, indicating road use and development as a possible cause of their occurrence. Further analysis showed other behaviors of these plants, such as settling preference, invasiveness, and level of dominance. The observational data showed that the current between management plan is inefficient and may prove to be harmful to the area. Current practices involve the mishandling of weeds and accelerated dispersal of propogules in disturbance areas. Further research should be done to gain a better understanding of this relationship in light of this research. Distribution
of the Mistletoe Englerina heckmanniana in Serengeti National
Park and Affecting Factors Although there are 21 different genera of mistletoe (Loranthaceae family), that grow in Africa, little to no research has been done on the mistletoe in Serengeti National Park. For the purposes of this study, we have initiated data collection on the species Englerina heckmanniana, the dominant mistletoe species in the Serengeti. In specific, we looked at E. heckmanniana's parasitism of the genus Acacia. The distribution of occurring individuals was mapped and we also measured demographics of the host population in order to tease out contributing factors of distribution, such as methods of seed dispersion. The nature of distribution was determined using the nearest neighbor method and determined the significance of aggregation using the z-test. Also, we compared the mean height and girth of the parasitized and non-parasitized populations of three species of the genus Acacia: Acacia xanthophloea, Acacia abyssinica and Acacia tortolis. Further study could focus on distributional factors such as possible dispersal vectors and reproductive success of the plant. Tectonic
Setting of Origin and Regional Metamorphic History of Kopjes, Serengeti
National Park The kopjes of Serengeti National Park are outcrops of igneous and metamorphic rock that intrude ancient lake and volcanoclastic sediments. The Kopjes are exposures of granite and gneiss terrain separated by a greenstone belt that yield isotopic ages around 2.7 Ga in the Archean epoch. The Tanzanian craton typifies Archean terrane, which has been divided broadly into two groups; those made up of high-grade granulites, gneisses, and migmatites, and those that consist of low-grade, mafic schists called greenstone belts separated by granitic material (Bell and Dodson 1981). Greenstone belts are thought to represent metamorphosed island arc terranes formed by extending back arc basins along a convergent continental margin (Blatt and Tracy 1996). The association between these rock types has not been satisfactorily resolved. The kopjes exhibit similar mineralogy but different degrees of metamorphism. The compositions are granitoid with biotite as the usual mafic mineral. Phyllite or hornblendite xenoliths are abundant. The Mbuzi Mawe, Masaai, Seronera Lodge and Moru kopjes exhibit primary igneous textures with kinematic indicators around the margins. Aplite and pegmatitic quartzo-feldspathic veins suggest that the magma forming the kopjes comprised the remnants of a magma chamber. The Simba, Gol, and Barafu kopjes have migmatite textures and porphyroblasts of potassium feldspar, indicating melting and recrystallization. This geographic distribution of metamorphic intensity suggests a change in the activity of the volcanic arc source or a series of intrusions. Geochemistry on rocks obtained in this study will resolve the question of the kopjes' origin within the crust of the Archean earth. |
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An
Evaluation of Succession and Inter-specific Competition Between
the Grass Species Themeda triandra and its Competitors at
Different Time Intervals After the Event of Fire Themeda triandra, Digitaria macrblephara, Cynodon dactylon, Cymbopogon excavatus, and Pennisetum mezianum are the most common grass species in the southern Serengeti Plains thus making them important to study succession after a disturbance like fire. The primary objective of this study was to further understand the coexistence and interactions of succession dynamics between the grass species Themeda triandra and its competitors in the Serengeti National Park. This study was accomplished by calculating the percent cover of each grass species at different stages of succession, measured in years since the burn. The study shows that there are trends found between the succession of each grass species and the time of the burn. The results show that Themeda is more abundant up to 2 years after the event of fire. After 2 years, Themeda will not exist if Pennisetum is present. Patterns of successional growth were observed and Themeda was found more often with Digitaria and Pennisetum with Cynodon. Further research on grassland environments and the effect of fire on grasses will better inform Serengeti Wildlife Management about decisions on the use of fire.
Postural Congruence as Social Communication
among Savannah Olive Baboons (Papio anubis) Postural congruence is a behavior considered in the field of human psychology to be nonverbal social communication. Primate behavioral studies supplement the assumptions made in analyzing human behavior by providing statistical representations of behavior context and frequency. This study is a correlative study between an individual female savannah olive baboon's (Papio anubis) position within troop hierarchical structure and the exhibition of postural congruence. The frequency of postural congruence displayed must show correlation with the individual's social rank in order to support the theory that the behavior's use serves a social function. This study supports the previous theories introduced by psychologist A.E. Scheflen that postural congruence is not a random occurrence but instead intends to serve the purpose of communication (1964). The data show a trend for postural congruence frequency to increase as one's rank declines and to decrease as one's rank rises.
Differences in Foraging Behavior in East
African Acacia-Dwelling Ants Niche differentiation is elusive and ill-defined among similar species of acacia-ant inhabiting Acacia drepanolobium on the East African savanna. Researchers have found minor differences in tree preference and interactive behavior with other insects through work on the acacia-ants of Laikipia, Kenya. In Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, I explored off-tree foraging differences among the ant species Crematogaster nigriceps, C. mimosae, Camptonotus braunsi (not a true acacia-ant, but a prolific generalist), and Tetraponera penzigi. I found that Tetraponera penzigi remains obligately on its host tree; the other three species forage off of the host tree extensively. Through timed measurements of the number of ants to leave the host tree to forage in different temperature regimes, I found that the three foraging ant species do not differ significantly in foraging temperature preference. Instead, optimal foraging temperature is determined environmentally, rather than by species. The three foragers differ significantly in their foraging approach, as determined by repeated qualitative observation: Crematogaster nigriceps forages widely and broadly on the ground; C. mimosae forages in a thin line on neighboring grasses; Camptonotus braunsi forages in a thin line on the ground. Also, gall content analysis reveals that the material foraged differs between species: C. nigriceps forages A. drepanolobium leaves from the ground, C. mimosae forages organic matter for food, and Camptonotus braunsi returns with little, but exhibits a relationship with Lycaenid butterfly larvae within the acacia gall. These differences, relating to collection of food and nesting material, constitute resource partitioning, and facilitate the coexistence of the four ant species on one species of acacia.
Pliocene Paleoenvironment of Laetoli:
Fossil Teeth and Habitat Analogy The goal of this study was to reconstruct the Pliocene paleoenvironment at Laetoli by identifying and analyzing fossil teeth from the Upper Laetoli Beds (3.49 - 3.76 million years old) and making a habitat analogy with modern related species. In 7 days of collecting, 275 teeth and jaw fragments were recovered and of these collected specimens 37 different genera have been identified. The food preferences, typical habitat, and water needs of extant members of these genera were used to reconstruct the paleoenvironment. Results of the habitat analogy indicate that Pliocene Laetoli hosted animals with a variety of water needs that today live in semi-desert, wooded or bush savanna, forests, and grasslands, so Laetoli was most likely a mosaic of these environments. This mosaic environment hypothesis is in agreement with Musiba (1999) and disagreement with the dry savanna environment proposed by Leakey (1987). Questioning
the Ethics of the Cultural Exportation of the Maasai Ethnicity
The Maasai are an African ethnic group who live in Northern Tanzania and Southern Kenya. Since the 17th century, the Maasai have inhabited the Ngorongoro Area in Tanzania where they herd cattle, and obtain food from their livestock. The Maasai are famous because they have maintained this pastoral tradition over for many centuries. They have been idealized and glorified by the media as the most traditional ethnic group in Tanzania, and their image is used to sell many items such as artwork, and safari tickets to tourists, and even cellular telephones to other Africans in urban areas. This use of cultural images to sell a product abroad is called cultural exportation. My investigation in Endulen, Tanazania gives three examples of cultural exportation and it shows how the Maasai react both positively and negatively to the selling of their image. This study also asks, "Does cultural exportation equal cultural exploitation?" In general, the Maasai approve of the way their image is portrayed, but they do have strong concerns about non-Maasai people selling items that represent Maasai culture. |
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Causes
of Maternal Mortality among the Maasai Women in developing countries face countless hardships in their lives. Not only must they deal with unbelievable challenges in daily living and maintaining a household, they are also burdened with enormous risks in pregnancy and childbirth. In developed countries, pregnancy and childbirth are safe and simple due to advanced medical practices. However, in underdeveloped countries, complications and deaths due to maternity are increased dramatically. Maternal mortality is on the average eighteen times higher in developing countries than in developed countries (Westberg 2002). In fact, maternal mortality is the primary cause of death of reproductive age women, aged15 to 49, in low-income countries (Westberg 2002). In northern Tanzania, I investigated causes of maternal mortality among the Maasai, and compared the causes of maternal mortality and the maternal mortality rate to global estimates. I discovered that although the maternal mortality rate is high, it is not as high as that of Tanzania as a whole. The traditional beliefs and customs of the Maasai, practiced for thousands of years, have enabled them to avoid certain causes of death that other women around the world suffer from. The
Path to Peace: Levels of Conflict Mediation in Maasai Tradition
Arguments are inevitable in this era of increased social and global contact. Therefore we must devise new ways of resolving these conflicts in order to maintain peaceful communities and nations. Yet before we can approach the conflicts of tomorrow, we must first understand how we solve the problems of today. My project investigated the levels of mediation used by the Maasai to resolve conflicts of various types and severities. I interviewed 99 Maasai in Endulen village, Ngorongoro district, Tanzania, with the help of four translators. Through group-specific questions, I gathered information about different types of conflicts in Maasailand, such as those between siblings, spouses, friends, neighbors, and age-mates. I found that the Maasai of Endulen follow a hierarchical process of mediation, in which the social status of the mediator corresponds to the severity of the problem. Furthermore, family problems are resolved at the level of the family and Maasai women have little opportunity to escape this sphere of mediation. Therefore, the way in which the Maasai solve conflicts may illustrate their values and the role of each member in society. Identification
and Classification of the Olpiro Bed Lithic Assemblage Laetoli,
Tanzania This study focuses on localities 16 and 23 at the Laetoli Archaeological Site in Tanzania. Only one in situ excavation had been carried out in the Olpiro beds prior to this study, and these artifacts were found in secondary context. My new archaeological evidence from the Olpiro beds consisted of stone artifacts from primary context. Although, only a small number of artifacts were recovered from primary context, my new data coupled with the previous data, demonstrates that the lithic assemblage matches that from Olduvai Gorge at FLK North levels 4 and 5, attributed to the Oldowan Proper. This new archaeological evidence helps confirm an earlier date of 1.6-1.8 million years ago and changes the likely maker of these tools to Homo habilis from the later Homo erectus. Arboreal
Feeding Aggregation in Vervet Monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)
of the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania: When, Where, and How Often
Vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) are social animals that will aggregate around clumped or abundant food resources. This study sought to understand whether the size of the aggregated feeding group correlates with the size of arboreal food resources utilized and to determine whether vervet monkeys show a preference for particular resources by aggregating at those resources in greater numbers. In examining these relationships, I will begin to determine to what extent vervet monkeys forage according to the ecological principle of Ideal Free Distribution. I studied vervet monkeys in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania from early October to early November of 2002 during the morning hours (7:30am-12:00pm). I found that the size of the feeding aggregate is not correlated with food patch size, nor do vervet monkeys show preference for particular resources by aggregating in greater numbers. These results suggest that feeding aggregation in vervet monkeys may not be entirely related to the ecological principle of Ideal Free Distribution, but may also be regulated by social factors that remain to be studied.
Locality 25 at Laetoli: Tool Typology and
Behavioral Implications The intent of this study was to investigate the time period before the Middle Stone Age (MSA). We sought to acquire an assemblage representing the stone tools produced by the human inhabitants 200,000 BP and infer what possible behaviors they exhibited. Our research was conducted at Locality 25, located in the Upper Ngaloba Beds in the Laetoli region in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. To achieve our desired results, we proceeded with an initial surface survey of the area, supplemented by excavation through a series of three trenches. Artifacts, consisting of lithics, fauna, and various shells, were removed from each trench and subsequently analyzed. From these analyzed remains we obtained information leading us to believe that these toolmakers produced tools typical of the Njarasa Industry and exhibited behaviors that reflected this transitional time period, being cognitively inferior to their predecessors in the MSA, yet still displaying more advanced forethought and planning than their Acheulian fore bearers. The data generated by this project now gives a greater understanding of this time period and its evolutionary role prior to the MSA. |
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Comparison
of Mistletoe (Family Loranthaceae) Parasite-Host Specificity in
Serengeti National Park Little is known about the role that mistletoe parasites play in places of high endemicity and biological importance such as Tanzania, especially Serengeti National Park (SNP). This project investigates the relationship between the mistletoe parasite and tree host by asking three questions: (1) What species of mistletoe exist in SNP? (2) What trees are these species associated with? (3) What pattern (specialist or generalist) is this association most similar to? Specimen of both trees and Loranthaceae parasites were collected by hand and submitted to the University of Dar es Salaam Herbarium for identification. Three mistletoe species were found to infect ten different trees. A significant difference was found between the generalist model and observed infection rates of both the species and genus level for Plicosepalus curviflorus and P. sagitifolius, although not for other Loranthaceae. Gall infections were also found in two of the samples. Management strategies based on parasite host specificity as well as biological control mechanisms are presented herein. Comparing
the behavioral repertoires of displaying males and non-displaying
males in the Mwanza flat-headed agama (Agama mwanzae)
This study examines the differences in the frequency of behaviors between displaying males and non-displaying males of Agama mwanzae. The former are dominant members of a social system in which the males possess a color scheme that subordinate males lack. Subordinates are distinguished by another color scheme and the results of this study show that these males behave differently from the dominant males. Non-displaying males, avoided performing behaviors related to mating or attracting females. Females were more likely to approach and are in proximity to displaying males than non-displaying males. Displaying males and non-displaying males did not significantly differ in activities not related to mating or attracting females. This suggests that the status of a male A. mwanzae influences its morphology and its behavior pattern. Studies involving capture-relocation procedures can show whether the sudden absence of a displaying male will change the behavior of surrounding non-displaying males. STD
Prevention Education in Maasailand: is it culturally appropriate?* The sexually transmitted disease (STD) HIV/AIDS poses a serious threat to many African countries. Several studies have shown that the risk of HIV infection is decreased when STD contraction is prevented and when STDs that already exist are treated (Buye 2001, UNAIDS/WHO 2000). Therefore, access to both STD prevention education and prevention methods are major determinates of the spread of HIV/AIDS (Aggleton et al. 2000). Yet, these resources may not be reaching the populations expressing need. To determine whether the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) have access to these critical resources, I interviewed 71 Maasai men and women concerning their sexual behavior and knowledge of STD prevention methods. Through these interviews, I evaluated the STD prevention program available to the Maasai by Endulen Hospital and found that it is not culturally appropriate. I found that while the Maasai are receiving information about STDs and STD prevention, they are not changing their sexual behaviors to prevent contracting STDs. Using Mann-Whitney U tests I found that Maasai men knew more about STDs then women (P=0.0001), educated Maasai knew more about STDs then uneducated (P=0.0186), and Maasai who have attended the hopital's STD education program knew more about STDs then those who had not (P=0.0058).
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